Statistical Rapamycin in vitro analysis The specific statistical analysis used is noted below for each experimental approach. The Design Analysis Core at WFSM provided advice to the investigators, and the Design and Analysis Core performed select analyses. The number of animals used was based on experimental requirements for analysis and

were chosen for a two-sided analysis of population means with an acceptable probability of a Type I error (P-value) of 0.05 or less and a probability of a Type II error of 0.05 or less. Statistical significance occurred when Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical power was determined to be 80% or better and the P-value was equal to or less than 0.05. NMJ innervation For counting innervated hind limb skeletal muscle NMJs, immunohistochemistry was performed on soleus and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles. Animals were transcardially perfused with 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L sodium phosphate buffer. The

muscles were dissected, rinsed twice with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and placed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in 20% sucrose for at least 72 h at 4°C. The muscles were embedded in 20% sucrose:OCT (2:1) and cut at 30 μm on the cryostat. Antigen retrieval was achieved using a sodium dodecyl sulfate pretreatment (Brown et al. 1996) and the sections Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were stained for the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) and neurofilament light chain (NF-L; Millipore, Billerica, MA). Alexa-fluor 488 secondary Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical antibodies were used for detection (green). Sections were also labeled with Alexa-fluor-alpha-bungarotoxin (α-BTX; Invitrogen, Eugene, OR; red) (Maeda et al. 2004). NMJs that exhibited an overlap of red and green were considered innervated, while those that exhibited only α-BTX expression were considered denervated. All NMJs in every 30 μm section were analyzed. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The percentage of innervated NMJs was determined in each treatment group using previously established counting criteria (Gifondorwa et al. 2007). Statistical differences

between WT and SOD1 groups were determined using unpaired t-test. MN and interneuron counts Briefly, mice were transcardially perfused with PBS followed by Bouin’s fixative. The lumbar region of the spinal cord was removed and embedded in paraffin. Twelve micrometer sections were cut and stained Thiamine-diphosphate kinase with a 5% thionin solution (Chu-Wang and Oppenheim 1978). Only healthy MNs were counted in every tenth section of the lumbar spinal cord using a well established reliable method that has been validated against an optical fractionator unbiased stereological counting method (Clarke and Oppenheim 1995). Healthy MNs are those that lie completely in the section with a nucleolus and normal MN morphology. Means and SEM were determined for each group. Statistical significance between the two groups was determined by a t-test with Bonferroni correction.

Early mobilization, intermittent pneumatic compression devices and pharmacologic agents are used to prevent VTE. While pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis is widely accepted for most general surgery procedures, the fear of bleeding after major hepatectomy has limited its use (55). On the contrary, it is now evident that partial hepatectomy patients are in fact hypercoagulable. This hypercoagulability is a result of many factors including tissue

trauma, decreased synthesis of factors involved in the clotting cascade by the remnant liver, blood loss, hemodilution, increased Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical acute phase response, malignant diagnosis, prior chemotherapy, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increased age, long anesthetic times, and limited postoperative mobility (26,54,55). The reduced volume of liver not only results in reduced synthesis of procoagulants but the levels of anticoagulants: protein C, S and antithrombin decrease by more than 50%. Von Willebrand factor and factor VIII

levels are increased especially in larger resections likely due to surgical trauma. Prothombotic markers sP-Selectin and thrombin-antithrombin complexes are also significantly increased post hepatectomy. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Decreased anticoagulant levels combined with increased von Willebrand factor and factor VIII produce a prothrombotic milieu that persists on postoperative day 5 when most INR values have normalized (30). Thromboelastogram monitoring also demonstrates a state of postoperative hypercoagulability after living donor hepatectomy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (31). VTE may occur in the presence of elevated

standard measures of anticoagulation such as INR and PTT (56,57). A higher incidence of VTE has been noted in patients not receiving thromboprophylaxis the night of surgery (29). In a retrospective review Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of 415 patients undergoing major hepatectomy administration of pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis lowered the rate of VTE but did not increase the rate of red blood cell transfusion post hepatectomy (55). Pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis should be administered first starting the day of surgery unless high risk of bleeding exists. Conclusion Postoperative management after hepatic resection is challenging. Complex resections are being increasingly performed in high risk and older patient population. A well-devised, customized management approach based on patient’s overall condition, liver function, and nutritional status is vital to reduce postoperative complications and to achieve optimal outcomes. Footnotes No potential check details conflict of interest.

In Western countries pancreatic cancer represents the fourth cause of cancer death and its incidence rates, between 6 and 10 per 100000 populations, has increased in the last 30 years.

Consider the case where the synthesis of product P is of particular interest; then, the reaction PSynth is the EGFR inhibition objective reaction in the same context as a target reaction [17], whereby all flux vectors with a non-zero flux through reaction PSynth are of importance. The first step would be

to determine the qualitatively distinct possible ways of producing P; this is equivalent Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to calculating EMs as illustrated in Figure 2 below. Figure 2 Elementary modes (EMs) for NetEx. The EMs are represented by the solid blue arrows. Adapted from [11]. As shown in the above figure, there are six EMs for NetEx, five of which involve the PSynth reaction (highlighted networks). In order to eliminate the production of P, all the EMs Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that involve PSynth need to be blocked. By definition, an EM is blocked by removing any of its constituent reactions, therefore, any combination of reactions, one taken from each EM, forms a cut set that disables flux through the EMs. For our network example, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical NetEx, a MCS for the objective reaction, PSynth, is a set of reactions whose knockout blocks the five EMs involving PSynth, thus disabling flux through PSynth at steady state. 2.3. Other Definitions The notion of MCSs does exist in other theories

and research areas, particularly in relation to risk analysis. In developing the algorithm for MCSs, S. Klamt and E.D. Gilles [12] looked at previous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical similar definitions of MCSs that existed in other areas at the time. These included fault trees and graph theory which shall be discussed here; other similar concepts are looked at later in Section 5. 2.3.1. Fault Trees

Fault Trees are non-recursive Boolean networks studied in reliability and risk assessment of industrial systems [18,19], which have Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical similar definitions of MCSs. The Fault Tree diagrams use logic block diagrams to display the state of a system (top event) in terms of the states of its components (basic events). The basic events are ‘entries’ at the lowest level which form the leaves of the tree; intermediate events are those produced by binary operations (e.g., AND, OR, XOR) of other events, and the top event, representing a usually undesired system failure, unless is at the top of the Fault Tree. An example of a Fault Tree can be seen in the left hand graph of Figure 3 below. The right hand side graph is a Reliability Block Diagram (RBD) version of the Fault Tree. RBDs inversely represent Fault Trees: in RBDs one is working in the “success space” and thus looks at system success combinations, while in a Fault Tree one is working in the “failure space” and looks at system failure combinations. Figure 3 Example of a Fault Tree with equivalent Reliability Block Diagram (RBD). MCSs [20] for complex RBDs and Fault Trees are used to estimate their reliability.

This method may thus be used for individual risk prediction.29 It has yet to be applied more extensively to a larger number of MRI scans. Analysis of cortical thickness Another interesting automated method involves determining the cortical thickness of the neocortical association areas and the entorhinal cortex.30 Group separation

showed an accuracy of more than 90% in distinguishing between AD patients and healthy controls.31 However, this method has yet to be evaluated in an independent group, and the accuracy of this method in predicting conversion to AD in MCI subjects has not yet been studied. Imaging the cholinergic nuclei in the basal forebrain The imaging of structural changes in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the region of the cholinergic nuclei of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the basal forebrain was recentlyestablished using a combination of automated methods with regional information. The cholinergic projections from the basal forebrain to the cortex are affected early on in AD. An MRI-based method showed a signal reduction in the region of the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical lateral and medial nuclei of the basal nucleus of Meynert for the first time in vivo.32-34 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) The utilization of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows for the measurement of brain activation during cognitive

tasks at a high level of resolution without any radiation exposure to the patient. There have been many studies that have examined brain activation changes in MCI subjects compared with AD, for the development of a marker of early AD.35-37 One new approach has been to investigate changes in the functional connectivity between regions of an activated network.38 Functional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical connectivity gives a measure of the linear association between two regions and is a function of the phase relationship between the regions’ signals.39 An investigation of functional connectivity in MCI subjects

have shown that there are widespread changes in functional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical connectivity of the fusiform gyrus to other visual processing areas, and areas within the ventral and dorsal Adenosine visual pathways.38 The changes in functional connectivity preceded differences in brain activation between the MCI and healthy control group. Given that cognitive function requires a high level of integration across the network subserving cognitive function, it suggests that the first factor that may be altered in the brain by the putative AD neuropathology is the integration across a neural network. In find more addition, it has been found that the activation level within the fusiform gyrus was more strongly correlated to the gray matter density in the ventral and dorsal visual pathways compared with the healthy controls, further suggesting that changes in the entire network affect activation within a network region.

The mean duration of ED visits was also higher in Level 1 trauma centers when compared to non-trauma, Level 2, and Level 3 trauma centers across patients’ discharge status, except when the patient died in the hospital. Patients visiting EDs of hospitals with large bed size experienced longer duration regardless of their discharge status when compared to hospitals with small or medium bed sizes. Finally, the mean duration of ED visits at hospitals that were members of a hospital system was slightly higher when compared to hospitals that were not members of hospital systems. Table 3 Mean and median duration of treat-and-release visits at EDs by disposition of the patient at discharge across hospital

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and area characteristics Regression results Table ​Table44 presents regression results that convey the impact of admission Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical day of the week, patient demographics, and hospital characteristics on duration of patients’ visits to EDs. All results are highly statistically significant for all variables across all models except hospital characteristics S3I-201 research buy Estimated under the multilevel model. Average duration of visits on Mondays is at least 4 percent and 9 percent more than the average duration of visits on non-Monday workdays and on Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical weekends, respectively.

The results also show that average duration of ED visits for older patients or female patients is generally longer when compared Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to younger patients or male patients. Non-white patients generally experience longer duration of ED visits when compared to white patients. When compared to patients with other primary payers, Medicare patients are generally associated with longer duration of ED visits, and uninsured patients or patients who pay out-of-pocket are generally associated with shorter duration of ED visits. Table 4 Estimated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Effects of Admission Time, Patient and Hospital Characteristics on Log Duration of Emergency Department Visits

The regression results presented in Table ​Table44 show that patients visiting teaching hospitals and Level 1 trauma centers generally experience longer duration of ED visits. Average duration of patient’s visits to Level 2 and Level 3 trauma centers are generally shorter when compared to the duration of ED visits Rolziracetam at non-trauma hospital centers. Patients visiting urban hospitals experience longer duration of ED visits when compared to patients visiting rural hospitals. Similarly, the average duration of ED visits to hospitals with large or medium bed size is shorter than the average duration of ED visits to hospitals with small bed size. Table ​Table44 also provides crucial information about the source of variation in duration of ED visits. The intra-class correlation coefficient obtained through multilevel regression analysis indicates that about 56 percent of variations in duration of patients’ visits to EDs are due to variation within patients clustered by hospitals.

80 The finding of MAO activity differences in platelets of alcohol-dependent individuals versus controls was first reported approximately 40 years ago.84 It was subsequently found that human platelets contained exclusively the B-type of MAO.85 Early studies also suggested that low platelet MAO activity was associated with certain personality traits, such as impulsiveness, risk-taking

behaviors, aggressiveness, and, in particular, predisposition to alcohol and drug dependence.80,86 It has been hypothesized that low levels of platelet MAO activity may be an endophenotype for predisposition to alcohol and drug abuse; Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical however, the results from several studies have not been consistent, and this discrepancy has been primarily attributed to the confounding effect of tobacco use.80,86 Snell et al87 examined the relationship between differences in

platelet MAOB activity associated with alcohol dependence, cigarette smoking, and gender. The findings suggested that lower Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical platelet MAO activity is attributed to cigarette smoking and may reflect reduced substrate accessibility to the MAO catalytic site in smokers. Prospective studies on platelet MAO activity are necessary to further evaluate its validity as an endophenotype Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for alcoholism. Adenylyl UNC1999 order cyclase The enzymatic activity of AC has been proposed as a potential endophenotype Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for alcohol dependence. AC is responsible for the conversion of adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) to the second messenger cAMP88,89 Other major components involved in AC/cAMP pathway are various extracellular signal receptors and heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G proteins) that couple the signals generated at receptors to the catalysis of cAMP formation. Nine isoforms of the mammalian AC enzyme (types I – IX), with differing regulatory properties, are known to exist.88,90

AC activity is regulated by different receptors, including dopamine, opiate, adenosine, muscarinic cholinergic, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) adrenergic, and serotonergic receptors. These receptors interact with either stimulatory (Gs) or inhibitory (Gi) G protein subtypes, resulting in stimulation or inhibition of AC.89 On the other side of the cAMP signaling cascade, phosphodiesterases can inactivate cAMP through hydrolysis into AMP. There are two known targets of cAMP in mammals, the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and Oxygenase the cAMP-gated ion channel (predominantly found in the olfactory neurons). The production of cAMP depresses the activity of PKA, which then modulates intracellular metabolism, receptor, or ion channel function, and gene expression in various cells and tissues.88,90,91 cAMP-responsive binding element (CREB) is one example of a transcription factor that can be modulated in its function by the cAMP signaling cascade.

Therefore, the question as to whether Sir2 increases lifespan in C. elegans remains unanswered, and further research must be done to elucidate the differences between these studies. Similar to the experiments repeated in worms, when Burnett and colleagues repeated the experiments in flies using the more appropriate transgenic control (tubulin/GAL4+) in both weak and strong expression of the transgene, they did not find an increase in lifespan.

However, they failed to address a previous study which used inducible Sir2 overexpression to extend lifespan. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical This study used the appropriate controls and still found a lifespan extension, which was dependent on inducible Sir2 levels.34 Obatoclax Interestingly, in that paper, increasing dSir2 levels ~5-fold as compared to

~3-fold further Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical extended fly lifespan, indicating that different levels of dSir2 overexpression can differentially increase lifespan. Hence, with conflicting data regarding dSir2-regulated lifespan extension in drosophila, one must wonder exactly which differences are responsible for the apparent discrepancies. Regardless, these studies Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical emphasize the need for appropriate controls in lifespan experiments, as well as outcrossing to overcome effects of transgene integration. Due to the general confusion regarding the role of sirtuins in worms and flies, the question of whether sirtuins regulate lifespan in mammals was more critical than ever. While there is now a great deal of data on yeast, worms, and flies, which are good research models, they are not similar to mammals and humans. Hence, researchers turned towards mice to investigate whether sirtuins can regulate lifespan Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in mammals, thereby completely bypassing the sirtuin debate in lower metazoans. The original results

in mammals were also puzzling. The first sirtuin examined to regulate lifespan in mammals was the most well-known mammalian sirtuin, SIRT1, the closest mammalian homologue to Sir2. However, although moderate overexpression of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical SIRT1 protected against age-related diseases such as osteoporosis, glucose intolerance, and metabolic syndrome-related cancers, it did not extend lifespan.35 Thus, MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit either SIRT1 has no role in regulating lifespan; or under the weak expression of the transgene (threefold) SIRT1 has no effect of longevity, and stronger expression of the transgene may be necessary to achieve lifespan extension. In parallel to the research carried out with SIRT1, a separate group examined the role of SIRT6 in regulating lifespan. SIRT6 is a nuclear sirtuin known to be involved in DNA repair, inflammation, and metabolism. It seemed a likely candidate for aging, as the absence of SIRT6 in mice caused a severe aging-like phenotype and early death.36 However, early death is not necessarily indicative of a role in longevity, as developmental or metabolic defects and not premature aging can cause lethal damage.

M. Magarinos, B. S. McEwen, R Pevet, unpublished data). Below we consider mechanisms involved in structural remodeling. The role of adrenal steroids in the structural remodeling described above reflects may interactions with neurochemical systems in the hippocampus, including serotonin, γ-aminobutyric

acid (GABA), and excitatory amino acids (Figure 5). 2 Probably the most important interactions are those with excitatory amino acids such as glutamate. Excitatory amino acids released by the mossy fiber pathway play a key role in the remodeling of the CA3 region of the hippocampus, and regulation of glutamate release by adrenal steroids Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may play an important role.54-57 We have found that the glutamate transporter, Glt-1, is elevated by CRS in hippocampus, particularly in the CA3 region, providing another Fostamatinib mw indication that elevated glutamate levels arc an important component of structural plasticity. We previously showed that NMDA receptor blockade and the Na/Ca channel blocker, phenytoin,

both block Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical CRS- and glucocorticoid-induced remodeling of dendrites in CA3.58-60 Recent evidence indicates that presynaptic receptors containing kainate receptor subunits such as GluR6 are important for the feed-forward actions of glutamate on mossy fiber terminals,61 and one study showed that a number of kainate receptor subunit mRNAs are regulated biphasically by adrenal steroids.57 In particular, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical preferential mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) occupancy by low corticosterone (CORT) levels enhanced mRNA levels for KAR2, GluR6, and GluR7.57 This agrees with our finding that MR activation by aldosterone in adrenalectomized (ADX) rats restored levels of [3H]kainate binding in the mossy fiber region of CA3.56 However, further studies are needed. Figure 5. Glucocorticoids increase glutamate levels, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, calcium currents, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) turnover, and 5-HT2 receptors, decrease 5-HT1A receptors,

and alter subunit expression of GABAa receptors. A. Cross-section … Because excitatory amino acids play a key role along with circulating glucocorticoids, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the activation of the CREB (cyclic adenosine monophosphate response Oxymatrine element–binding protein) system is a likely candidate mediator, and recent evidence indicates that phosphorylation of CREB is chronically activated in rats subjected to CRS. CREB has been linked to regulation of synaptic plasticity and particularly neurogenesis.62 It is possible that CREB is involved in activity-dependent synapse formation, which is evident as a result of long-term potentiation.63,64 However, the role of glucocorticoids in activation of the CREB system has not been thoroughly investigated. Nevertheless, treatment with the mood stabilizer lithium prevented CRS-induced structural remodeling of the stress-induced elevation of Glt-1 and CREB phosphorylation (G. E.

95 and 0.96) with the SF-36 [26]. Non-death revised grief experience inventory (NDRGEI) The Non-Death Revised Grief Experience Inventory measures

grief that is not associated with the death of a person. It is a 22-item scale measuring four domains (existential concerns, depression, tension and guilt, and physical distress) of the grief experience. Responses are scored on a 6-point scale, ranging from slight disagreement to strong agreement, with higher the total score indicating more grief and loss. The Non-Death Revised Grief Experience Inventory has a maximum score of 132. The scale has established Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical reliability (alpha =0. 93) and validity (p=0. 001) [27]. This scale was used in a study of hope and caregivers [5]. Data collection

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical form Data regarding the journals (approximate daily time spent journaling, number of journal entries), and possible co-interventions such as support groups were collected using this form. Sample and setting Family caregivers in this study were defined broadly as a family member or significant other identified by the patient as his or her primary source of emotional and physical support. Rural was defined as living outside major population areas in Alberta and Saskatchewan with rural areas designated by provincial postal codes [28]. Inclusion and exclusion criteria Sample inclusion criteria were: Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a) female, b) 18 years of age and older, c) caring for a family member who has a diagnosis of advanced cancer and has been referred to palliative care and /or is receiving palliative care services, d) home address is a rural postal code, and e) English speaking. Exclusion criteria were a) women who were cognitively impaired as determined by the recruitment team at the site,

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical b) women otherwise unable to participate, in the opinion of the recruitment team and c) women caring for a family member who has a diagnosis of advanced cancer as well as dementia. Sample size Sample size was determined based on a power of 0.80, alpha of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 0.05, and a moderate effect size of 0.5. Using Munro’s [29] tables for power analysis an adequate sample size would be 48. Convenience sampling was used. Thirty-six participants consented to participate. The sample was recruited using multiple strategies. Potential participants were mailed invitations to participate by the Saskatchewan and Alberta Cancer Registries. If they returned their contact information in a prepaid postage envelope, through they were contacted by a research assistant (RA) to discuss the study. In Saskatchewan, the Palliative Care Admission team in Regina Qu’Barasertib datasheet Appelle Health Region and nurses at the Saskatchewan Cancer Agency also identified potential participants. In Alberta, the Alberta Health Services Cancer Care and Community Cancer Clinics in rural communities also identified potential participants. Those who agreed were contacted by trained RAs (experienced Registered Nurses) to arrange a time to meet to discuss the study.

This docs not indicate that therapy is making them worse, but rather that therapy has begun to address their avoidant strategies to the point that they can start to acknowledge the severity of these symptoms. Conclusion The above discussion highlights challenges and strengths of using the present DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for PTSD in children. Unlike the controversy about pediatric bipolar disorder, there has not been a challenge that too many false-positives of child PTSD are being made. Concern about false-positives (lack of specificity) has been raised in the adult literature, but these concerns and speculations have been forcefully rebutted Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with empirical data and do not appear to be widely held.

In contrast, for child PTSD, the concern has been the opposite: that too few traumatized children are diagnosed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical whether due to insensitive criteria or due to the need for a novel syndrome. However, again, these are speculations that ignore the data

that PTSD is the most common and underlying syndrome that develops after all types of selleck screening library lifethreatening trauma, and has shown validity across all ages, good predictive validity, and concurrence with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical preliminary neurobiologies measures. In summary, PTSD remains a well-validated disorder, and is the most useful construct of child and adolescent post-trauma psychopathology for research and clinical purposes. The current PTSD diagnostic criteria should be revised to reflect current research about developmental manifestations of this disorder. Acknowledgments The authors thank Anthony Mannarino, PhD, Esther Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Deblinger, PhD, Robert Steer, EdD, Ann Marie Kotlik, the staff of AGH CTSCA, Charles Zeanah, MD, and all the children and families from whom we have learned. Funding for this project was provided in part by the US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Grant No. SM 54319. Contributor Information Judith A. Cohen, Professor

of Psychiatry, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Drexel University College of Medicine; Medical Director, Center for Traumatic Stress in Children and Adolescents, Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Michael S. Scheeringa, Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Neurology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
Anorexia nervosa developing in early adolescence was well documented in the case of Princess Margaret of Hungary, who lived and died in the 13th century1 She was the daughter of King Bcla IV, who had her enter a Dominican convent for during her early childhood. Her history comes from a complete copy of depositions by witnesses who gave evidence in the process of her beatification, which began less than 5 years after her death. Her eating behaviors were indistinguishable from those of young anorexia nervosa patients of today. Although there is documentation of fasting female saints in the middle ages,2 the fasting did not appear to occur during childhood.