Figure 1 shows a diagram illustrating the malX-malI intergenic region with the transcription Selleck Palbociclib start sites for the malX and malI promoters, the corresponding −10 elements, and the DNA site for CRP that is located at position −41.5 with respect to the malX transcription start and position −43.5 with respect to the malI transcription start. Figure 1 also shows the locations of two 16 base pair elements, suggested to be the operator targets for the MalI repressor. The aim of the work described here was to investigate this suggestion and to determine the functional operator(s) for each promoter. In a previous

work, Lloyd et al. (2008) described how the malX promoter could be assayed by cloning the malX100 fragment into the lac expression vector plasmid, pRW50. Measurements of β-galactosidase expression in M182 or its Δcrp derivative showed the malX promoter to be a typical Class II CRP-dependent promoter, which is consistent with the location of the DNA site for CRP (West et al., 1993). Lloyd et al. (2008) also reported that expression of the malX promoter∷lac fusion carried by pRW50 is unaffected by the introduction of a multicopy plasmid carrying the malX-malI intergenic region, suggesting that the level of chromosomally

encoded MalI is insufficient to repress the malX promoter significantly. Thus, to set up a system to measure MalI-dependent repression of the malX promoter, we cloned the malI gene into plasmid pACYC184 to generate pACYC-malI. selleck compound Measurements of β-galactosidase expression in M182 cells carrying HDAC cancer pRW50 with the malX100 promoter show that the presence of pACYC-malI causes an ∼30-fold reduction in expression, compared with the control with the empty pACYC-ΔHN plasmid (Table 1, upper panel). The experiment was then repeated with M182 cells carrying pRW50 with the malX400 promoter fragment, in which the malX promoter sequence upstream of the DNA site for CRP had been removed (illustrated in Fig. 1). The data in Table 1 (upper panel) show that neither malX promoter

activity nor repression by MalI is substantially affected by the deletion, and thus sequences upstream of the DNA site for CRP must play little or no role. On MacConkey lactose indicator plates, colonies of M182 carrying pRW50 with either the malX100 or malX400 promoter fragments, together with pACYC-malI, appear as white Lac− colonies. In contrast, if pACYC-malI is replaced with pACYC-ΔHN, colonies have a bright red, clear Lac+ appearance. Thus, to pinpoint the operator sequences essential for repression of the malX promoter by MalI, we used error-prone PCR to generate a library of random mutations in the malX400 promoter fragment and screened for mutations that resulted in pink or red colonies of cells containing pACYC-malI. We reasoned that such colonies would contain pRW50 carrying the malX400 fragment with mutations that interfered with MalI binding.

1b). Ethanol was the primary fermentation product; and most of it was produced during the first day and the yield increased continuously. The content of acetic acid increased significantly, especially during the first 3 days. Like ethanol, butyric acid was mainly

produced during the first day and thereafter maintained a constant level. Cellobiose was detected on the third day, and with a peak value of 0.02 g L−1 on the fourth day. Glucose was only detected on the second day, with a concentration of 0.02 g L−1. Akt inhibitor The low concentration of the cellobiose and glucose indicated their immediate consumption. A minor proportion of butanol was detected on the 10th day, with a concentration of 0.016 g L−1. Normally, butanol is produced by mesophilic anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium acetobutylicum; however, the thermophilic bacterial mixtures (60 °C) studied here also showed butanol production, indicating the

presence of thermophilic butanol-producing species in the community. However, other fermentation products still remained to be determined. Note that FP degradation was not a secondary consequence of using l-cysteine and bicarbonate as primary carbon source. This was confirmed using a medium with FP as the sole carbon source (without l-cysteine and bicarbonate); the degradation of FP was not changed except MLN0128 nmr that the decomposing rate was slower. The enzyme activity of the fermentation supernatant was compared with that of C. thermocellum LQR1. The FPase and CMCase activities of the community were two times higher than that of C. thermocellum LQR1 and beta-xylosidase of the community was much more active. The activities of xylanase, beta-glucosidase and pNPCase Miconazole of C. thermocellum LQR1 were also higher (Table 1). To identify the community members, a 16S rRNA gene library of the cellulolytic consortium was constructed. Diversity levels were determined with a cutoff value of 97% sequence similarity. A total of 16 OTUs were represented

in the clone library after 50 clones were surveyed. Rarefaction analysis of the 16S rRNA clone library is shown in Fig. 2. The most abundant OTUs accounted for 42% and 18% of the clone library, and shared similarity with the type strain C. thermocellum ATCC 27405, which is known for its high cellulolytic ability due to cellulosome formation. Although the 16S rRNA gene similarities of these closes were around 87–89%, we believe that they were mainly responsible for cellulose degradation. In other studies, Clostridium straminisolvens-like sequences accounted for a large portion of cellulolytic enrichments (Izquierdo et al., 2010). In our results, one OTU accounted for only 2% of the clone library and was most similar to C. straminisolvens. However, in contrast to other cellulolytic enrichments, all sequences from the OTUs represented novel species.

Azithromycin (500–600 mg on d 1 and 250–600 mg on subsequent days) and atovaquone (750 mg every 12 h) were found to Cell Cycle inhibitor be equally effective. The latter combination is associated with fewer adverse effects and in our patient covered both infections.9 Whereas our patient recovered uneventfully, one US group reported from a retrospective analysis of 14 cases that coinfected individuals may be more symptomatic and have longer disease duration than monoinfected patients.3,5,8 The authors thank Suzanne Jurriaans and Anneke Oei for laboratory assistance. The authors state that they have no conflicts of interest to declare. M. v. V., J. W.,

and M. H. contributed to patient care. T. v. G., M. K., N. V., L. S., and A. B. contributed to the diagnostic procedures. M. v. V. and M. P. G. drafted this article. All authors contributed to the final version of this article and approved of it submission. M. P. G. as corresponding author had full access to all data and holds final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. “
“Schistosomiasis in the

returning traveler is closely associated with fresh water exposure in sub-Saharan Africa and is commonly asymptomatic. We describe two patients who presented with unusual gynecological presentations of schistosomiasis many years after travel to endemic areas. The manifestations of female this website genital schistosomiasis are discussed. Schistosomiasis in the returning traveler is commonly asymptomatic but can present as chronic disease many years later. These two cases of upper genital schistosomiasis demonstrate unusual sequalae of ectopic schistosomal migration. A 34-year-old British female presented with acute right iliac fossa pain. Examination demonstrated tenderness

and guarding in this area. Vaginal speculum examination was normal with no cervical excitation or discharge. Investigations revealed normal hemoglobin and β-HCG levels, white cell count 13.9 × 109/L (normal eosinophil count), and C-reactive protein 22.7 mg/L. A vaginal ultrasound scan showed two cysts (66 × 44 Teicoplanin × 49 mm and 28 × 13 mm) in the right ovary divided by a thick septum and a small amount of fluid in the Pouch of Douglas. At laparoscopy a torted right ovarian cyst was noted and the patient underwent a laparoscopic right salpingo-oophorectomy (Figure 1). Histopathology showed a bi-loculated ovarian cyst with sections of hemorrhagic and congested ovarian tissue, consistent with torsion. Additionally there was a granulomatous foreign body and giant cell reaction, within which were degenerate schistosomes. Schistosomal enzyme immunoassay was strongly positive. The patient was treated with praziquantel. The patient had traveled worldwide 8 years previously, spending some months in Thailand, Australia, and southern Africa, where she swam in Lake Malawi. She had no illnesses while traveling. She had had no screening for tropical infections following her return.

3. The differences in antibiotic susceptibility between pH 5.5 and 7.3 were especially noticeable for the biofilm cells of S. aureus KACC13236. However, the antibiotic resistance patterns of S. aureus CCARM 3080 were not significantly different between the biofilm cells at pH 5.5 and 7.3, showing

MIC values of 128 μg mL−1 to more than 256 μg mL−1. As shown in Table 5, the planktonic and biofilm cells of S. Typhimurium JQ1 nmr CCARM 8009 were more likely to be resistant to most antibiotics when compared to S. aureus KACC13236. Similarly, the biofilm cells of S. Typhimurium were more resistant to antibiotics compared with the planktonic cells. According to the results of the susceptibility of selected foodborne pathogens, the strains of S. aureus KACC13236, S. aureus CCARM 3080, S. Typhimurium KCCM 40253, and S. Typhimurium CCARM 8009 were assigned to antibiotic-susceptible S. aureus (S. aureusS), multiple antibiotic-resistant S. aureus (S. aureusR), antibiotic-susceptible S. Typhimurium (S. TyphimuriumS), multiple antibiotic-resistant S. Typhimurium

(S. TyphimuriumR), respectively. The gene expression patterns were evaluated in the antibiotic-susceptible (S. aureusS and S. TyphimuriumS) and multiple antibiotic-resistant strains (S. aureusR and S. TyphimuriumR) anaerobically cultured in TSB adjusted to pH 5.5 and 7.3 during the planktonic-to-biofilm transition for 48 h at 37 °C (Figs 1 and 2). The relative expression of norB, norC, mdeA, sec, seg, sei, sel, sem, sen, and seo genes was observed in the planktonic and biofilm cells of S. aureusS and S. aureusR (Fig. 1). The norB and mdeA genes

Belnacasan were overexpressed at the planktonic cells of both Selleck Docetaxel S. aureusS and S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 5.5 after 48-h incubation (Fig. 1a). The relative expression level of norC gene was increased 2.8-fold in S. aureusS. The relative gene expression levels of sel and sem were increased 5.0- and 3.0-fold, respectively, in the planktonic cells of S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 5.5. As shown in Fig. 1b, the relative gene expression of norC and mdeA was stabilized in the planktonic cells of both S. aureusS and S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 7.3. The relative expression levels of norB, seg, and sei genes were increased 52.6-, 2.6-, and 5.9-fold, respectively, in the planktonic cells of S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 7.3. Unlike the planktonic cells, all genes were stable in the biofilm cells of S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 5.5 and pH 7.3, except for the sec gene in S. aureusR biofilm cells formed in TSB at pH 5.5 (Fig. 1c,d). The relative gene expression levels of norB and mdeA were increased 1.9- and 2.0-fold, respectively, in the biofilm cells of S. aureusS grown in TSB at pH 5.5 (Fig. 1c). The highest expression level (116.6-fold) was observed at the norB gene in the S. aureusR biofilm cells grown in TSB at pH 5.5. As shown in Fig. 1d, the norB, norC, and mdeA genes were stable in the biofilm cells of both S. aureusS and S. aureusR grown in TSB at pH 7.3.

1c). PCR-amplified products of the expected sizes were detected for the internal region of ferB and the intergenic region between ferB and ferA; however, no products for ferC–ferB and ferA-SLG_25010 intergenic regions were obtained. These results suggested that ferB and ferA are organized in the same transcriptional unit. qRT-PCR analyses were performed

to determine the transcriptional regulation of the ferBA operon. As shown in Fig. 2a, the transcription of ferB BAY 57-1293 research buy was induced 6.5-fold in the SYK-6 cells grown on ferulate. However, no induction was observed in the cells grown in the presence of the metabolites of ferulate, vanillin or vanillate, suggesting that the inducer molecule of the ferBA operon is ferulate or its first metabolite, feruloyl-CoA (Fig. 2b). To examine the role of ferC in the transcriptional regulation of the ferBA operon, ferC mutant (SME043) Selleck Navitoclax was created. qRT-PCR analyses showed that ferB was constitutively expressed at a high level in the SME043 cells, indicating that the ferBA operon is negatively regulated by the ferC gene product (Fig. 2a). The ferA mutant (FAK), which is unable to transform ferulate, and the ferB mutant (FBK), which is scarcely able to transform feruloyl-CoA were employed for the qRT-PCR analysis

to determine the inducer of the ferBA operon. SYK-6 has two feruloyl-CoA hydratase/lyase genes, ferB and ferB2 (Masai et al., 2002), but the level of ferB2 transcription was < 10% of that of ferB (data not shown). In the FAK cells, the transcriptional induction of ferB was not observed in the presence of ferulate (Fig. 2b). On the other hand, the Org 27569 transcription of ferB was significantly induced in the FBK cells when ferulate was supplemented (Fig. 2b).

These results indicated that feruloyl-CoA is the actual inducer of the ferBA operon. This fact corresponded to the observation that CoA-thioester intermediates act as inducers for the regulation by FerR, HcaR, and BadR (Egland & Harwood, 1999; Parke & Ornston, 2003; Calisti et al., 2008). To determine the promoter region of the ferBA operon, a DNA fragment containing ferC and the ferC-ferB intergenic region was cloned into a promoter-probe vector pPR9TZ (Kamimura et al., 2010), generating a transcriptional fusion to the promoterless lacZ reporter gene (pPR85). The levels of expression of the lacZ fusion in SME043 cells harboring pPR85 were examined. The β-galactosidase activity was increased 16-fold in the cells grown in the presence of ferulate (Fig. S1). Therefore, the cis-acting region necessary for the transcriptional regulation in response to an inducer seemed to be in the ferC–ferB intergenic region. On the other hand, SME043 cells harboring pPR05, which contains the ferC–ferB intergenic region but not ferC, showed constitutive expression (Fig.

The Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health is funded by the Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services Division (RESAS) of the Scottish Government. We thank S. James for his support and advice. “
“Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG (ATCC 53103) is one of the most widely studied and commercialized probiotic

strains, and thus strain-specific identification for the strain is highly valuable. In this study, two published PCR-based identification methods for strain GG, a transposase gene-targeting system and a phage-related gene-targeting system, were evaluated. The former produced amplicons from eight of the 41 strains tested and the phage-related system Idasanutlin ic50 from five of the tested strains, including the strain GG. Fingerprinting analysis indicated that the strains

LMG 18025, LMG 18030, and LMG 18038, which had an amplicon by the former system but none by the latter, were genetically distinguishable from L. rhamnosus GG at strain level. Strains LMG 23320, LMG 23325, LMG 23534, and LMG 25859 showed profiles very similar to that of the strain GG, suggesting that these strains might be identical to GG or derivative strains of it. The results here indicated that the phage-related gene-targeting system selleckchem is a good tool for accurate identification of L. rhamnosus GG. This system would be able to detect both the original L. rhamnosus GG and its derivative strains. Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG (=ATCC 53103) is one of the most widely studied and commercialized probiotic strains. Several functional and health-associated characteristics of the strain Tenofovir solubility dmso have been demonstrated, including enhancement of the mucus adhesion of other beneficial microorganisms (Ouwehand et al., 2000) and competitive exclusion

of human pathogens (Lee et al., 2003). In addition, in vivo intervention studies have suggested that administration of L. rhamnosus GG has an impact on atopic eczema in infants (Kalliomäki et al., 2001, 2003), healthcare-associated diarrhea, including rotavirus gastroenteritis in hospitalized children (Szajewska et al., 2011), the frequency and severity of abdominal pain with irritable bowel syndrome in children (Francavilla et al., 2010), and upper respiratory tract infections in children attending day-care centers (Hojsak et al., 2010). In view of the importance of the organism for both research and industrial applications, a strain-specific identification system would be the most valuable means of verifying the quality and presence of the strain both in food products and in human intestinal samples in follow-up and future intervention studies. Strain-specific identification was originally carried out by specific culture properties and then by DNA fingerprinting or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) monoclonal antibodies (Yuki et al., 1999; Yeung et al., 2004; Coudeyras et al., 2008). However, these methods are time-consuming and need experienced experts to perform.

In pregnant women who require therapy for their own health, HAART is always advised. There remains a lack of consensus regarding optimum obstetric management of pregnant HIV-infected women in the HAART era. As a result of very low

MTCT rates under effective HAART [1–4], the additional value of see more an elective CS for PMTCT has been questioned in cases where the HIV RNA load is below detection (usually <40–50 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL). Concerns relate to the risk–benefit balance of elective CS in such circumstances, particularly as HIV-infected women may be more likely to experience postnatal complications than uninfected women, and that women delivering by elective CS are more likely to have complications than those delivering vaginally [20,21]. Some guidelines still recommend an elective CS for women on HAART with undetectable HIV RNA loads [15,16], whereas other guidelines no longer do so [13,14,17,19,22]. In the case of a measurable pre-labour HIV RNA load an elective CS is generally recommended. Our objectives were click here to examine temporal and geographical patterns of mode

of delivery in the Western European centres of the European Collaborative Study (ECS), to identify factors associated with likelihood of elective CS delivery in the HAART era and to explore the associations between mode of delivery and MTCT. The ECS is a birth cohort study, established in 1986, in which HIV-infected women are enrolled during pregnancy and their infants prospectively followed according to standard protocols Olopatadine [2,23]. The analyses presented here are limited to mother–child pairs (MCPs) enrolled

from the eight participating Western European countries up to the end of 2007. All pregnant women are offered antenatal HIV testing, and those infected invited to participate; pregnant women already known to be HIV-infected on the basis of earlier testing are also invited to take part. Informed consent is obtained before enrolment, according to local guidelines, and local ethics approval has been granted. Information collected at enrolment and during pregnancy includes current antiretroviral treatment (ART), maternal immunological and virological status and mode of acquisition. Maternal CD4 cell counts have been routinely collected since 1992 and HIV RNA measurements from 1998. Laboratory tests were performed locally; all laboratories were based in tertiary care hospitals. Maternal CD4 cell count and HIV RNA level nearest to delivery were used in the analyses. CD4 counts were categorized as <200, 200–499, and ≥500 cells/μL.

An unexpected finding of the present study was that patients receiving 60 weeks of early cART had a better HRQL on some of the physical MOS-HIV subscales than patients receiving 24 weeks of early cART. Because this is the first study to report the impact of early cART during PHI on HRQL, we cannot relate this selleck chemicals finding to those of previous studies. This result may be a real finding or may be the consequence of selection

bias, because not all participants enrolled in the RCT completed HRQL questionnaires. Clearly, this finding should be corroborated in future studies. A limitation of this substudy is that we included nonrandomized untreated PHI patients to increase the sample size of the no-treatment group. However, no differences were observed in HRQL between randomized and nonrandomized untreated patients. Additionally, we found a similar trend in results when analysing only the randomized patients.

In conclusion, in addition to the clinical benefit of temporary cART initiated during PHI, this substudy demonstrated that temporary early cART had a significant positive impact on patients’ HRQL over a study period of 96 weeks, despite the initial, short-term occurrence of physical symptoms, which were probably related to drug toxicity. learn more These findings provide important additional support for early intervention in patients with PHI and should be taken into account when considering early cART in patients with PHI. The authors wish to thank L. Gras of the HIV Monitoring Foundation for assisting with the data retrieval and the study participants for helping to establish this cohort. Tenofovir purchase Author contributions: MLG, JMP and PTN drafted the manuscript. MLG, RS and JMP established the cohort and together with MGAV, MK

and GJK were responsible for patient enrolment and the conduct of the trial at each study site. GK performed the data entry and MLG and PTN conducted the statistical analysis. All authors provided valuable input into protocol development and interpretation of data, and critically revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Financial support: This study was investigator-driven and not supported by any sponsor or specific source of funding. The Primo-SHM study has been made possible through the collaborative efforts of the following investigators and institutions (*site coordination physicians): Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam: J. M. Prins*, J. M. A. Lange, M. L. Grijsen, R. Steingrover, J. N. Vermeulen, M. Nievaard, B. Slegtenhorst, H. Doevelaar, W. Koevoets, H. E. Nobel, A. Henderiks and F. J. J. Pijnappel; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam: M. E. van der Ende*, B. J. A. Rijnders, I. Padmos, L. van Zonneveld and S. Been; Haga Ziekenhuis, locatie Leyenburg, Den Haag: R. H. Kauffmann*, E. F. Schippers, R. Korte and J. M.

difficile (Levett, 1986). This study was supported in part by the Slovenian Research Agency Grants J4-2236 and P4-0092). We thank Dr John Pringle, SLU, for critical reading of the manuscript. “
“Flexirubins are specific polyene pigments produced by several genera of Bacteroidetes. Colonies and cell extracts of Flavobacterium johnsoniae and Flexibacter elegans have been

investigated by Raman spectroscopy to show that this fast and non-destructive technique can be used to differentiate see more these pigments from carotenoids and to compare the flexirubin content of the two microorganisms. The presence or absence of certain distinguishing features in the CH combination band region at 2500–2750 cm−1 can assist in the discrimination between the two flexirubins investigated. Raman spectroscopy is thus a suitable MK0683 manufacturer tool not only to detect flexirubin pigments in bacterial cells, but also to further

characterize the pigments present in members of the Bacteroidetes genera that are rich in flexirubins. “
“Myxococcus xanthus has a large number of histidine kinase (HK) signal transduction proteins and many of these HKs are important for fruiting body development. Nla6S is an uncharacterized HK that lacks many of the conserved sequence motifs of typical HK proteins. In this study, we report that expression of the nla6S gene increases about sixfold during fruiting body development, that the Nla6S protein has the in vitro properties of HKs and that Nla6S is the prototype for a new family of HKs. To date, these Nla6-like HKs are found

only in fruiting members of the Cystobacterineae suborder of the myxobacteria. The myxobacterium Myxococcus xanthus has a highly social lifestyle. To obtain nutrients, gliding swarms of M. xanthus cells hunt prey bacteria and feed on them. When they are starving, M. xanthus cells initiate Montelukast Sodium a development cycle that yields multicellular fruiting bodies containing thousands of stress-resistant spores. Because of this multicellular lifestyle, M. xanthus has developed intricate signal transduction networks that monitor cell–cell signals and signals from the environment, and respond accordingly. Myxococcus xanthus has an abundance of histidine kinase (HK) sensor proteins to monitor these signals (Goldman et al., 2006). HKs, together with response regulators (RR), form a signal relay system known as the two-component signal transduction system (TCS). In this system, the HK autophosphorylates when it detects a particular signal and transfers the phosphoryl group to the RR, which activates it (Laub & Goulian, 2007). Activated RRs then alter the appropriate cellular process, often by modulating changes in gene expression. HKs typically contain a sensor and a transmitter domain (Stewart, 2010). The amino acid sequences of sensor domains are highly variable owing to the vast diversity of signals that they detect.

difficile (Levett, 1986). This study was supported in part by the Slovenian Research Agency Grants J4-2236 and P4-0092). We thank Dr John Pringle, SLU, for critical reading of the manuscript. “
“Flexirubins are specific polyene pigments produced by several genera of Bacteroidetes. Colonies and cell extracts of Flavobacterium johnsoniae and Flexibacter elegans have been

investigated by Raman spectroscopy to show that this fast and non-destructive technique can be used to differentiate Selleck DMXAA these pigments from carotenoids and to compare the flexirubin content of the two microorganisms. The presence or absence of certain distinguishing features in the CH combination band region at 2500–2750 cm−1 can assist in the discrimination between the two flexirubins investigated. Raman spectroscopy is thus a suitable BIBW2992 nmr tool not only to detect flexirubin pigments in bacterial cells, but also to further

characterize the pigments present in members of the Bacteroidetes genera that are rich in flexirubins. “
“Myxococcus xanthus has a large number of histidine kinase (HK) signal transduction proteins and many of these HKs are important for fruiting body development. Nla6S is an uncharacterized HK that lacks many of the conserved sequence motifs of typical HK proteins. In this study, we report that expression of the nla6S gene increases about sixfold during fruiting body development, that the Nla6S protein has the in vitro properties of HKs and that Nla6S is the prototype for a new family of HKs. To date, these Nla6-like HKs are found

only in fruiting members of the Cystobacterineae suborder of the myxobacteria. The myxobacterium Myxococcus xanthus has a highly social lifestyle. To obtain nutrients, gliding swarms of M. xanthus cells hunt prey bacteria and feed on them. When they are starving, M. xanthus cells initiate Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease a development cycle that yields multicellular fruiting bodies containing thousands of stress-resistant spores. Because of this multicellular lifestyle, M. xanthus has developed intricate signal transduction networks that monitor cell–cell signals and signals from the environment, and respond accordingly. Myxococcus xanthus has an abundance of histidine kinase (HK) sensor proteins to monitor these signals (Goldman et al., 2006). HKs, together with response regulators (RR), form a signal relay system known as the two-component signal transduction system (TCS). In this system, the HK autophosphorylates when it detects a particular signal and transfers the phosphoryl group to the RR, which activates it (Laub & Goulian, 2007). Activated RRs then alter the appropriate cellular process, often by modulating changes in gene expression. HKs typically contain a sensor and a transmitter domain (Stewart, 2010). The amino acid sequences of sensor domains are highly variable owing to the vast diversity of signals that they detect.