01 Hz, at the level of the sensor attached to the scalp. HIRREM software analytics then identify dominant frequencies in specific spectral brackets, in up to 48,000 bins of spectral data for any given

bracket. Brackets are assigned by the software based on a proprietary algorithm. The software compares the two channels of data to ascertain Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the symmetry between channels of EEG information and proportionation of spectral power within the channels. From the bracket of frequencies assigned for the subject’s exercise, the HIRREM software translates the dominant EEG frequency in a given instant of time to an audible musical tone, which is received by the subject through earphones. Depending on algorithm calculations, the delay between measurement and analysis of neural oscillatory activity and consequent presentation of corresponding musical tones can be as narrow as an estimated 12 msec. The process then iterates. The Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical HIRREM mathematical algorithms to define specifically how and when the dominant EEG frequencies are selected for resonance are informed by relationships among the parameters of the individual’s own unique spectral Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical EEG. The specific

tone is produced from a proprietary mathematical algorithm principally informed by the dominant frequency within the observed spectral bracket. A sample sequence of tones produced during 1 min of a HIRREM exercise and the corresponding notes on the pentatonic scale are available as Internet resources, in the form of audio, and pdf files. Application of HIRREM exercises to the bilateral temporal lobes is emphasized, as we theorize that comparison of spectral EEG amplitudes in simultaneous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical BKM120 recordings at the bilateral

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical temporal lobes (T3 and T4 in the 10–20 International EEG system) may provide an opportunity to engage the degree of balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. As noted in Introduction, numerous studies have found that management of the autonomic nervous system is lateralized in the cerebral hemispheres. Specifically, right insular cortex appears to drive sympathetic functioning, whereas left insular Oxalosuccinic acid cortex drives parasympathetic functioning (Craig 2005). T3 and T4 are located over Brodmann areas 21 and 22, respectively, at the middle and superior gyri of the temporal lobes (Homan et al. 1987) and are therefore in the proximity of insular cortex. Apart from a focus on the temporal lobes, HIRREM exercises take place for major regions of the cortex including frontal, parietal, occipital lobes, central strip, and the midline, and across the EEG frequency spectrum in each of those locations. At the conclusion of a single HIRREM session, the provider runs an analysis program which shows summary data for the session.

The transient paranoia or dissociative symptoms of criterion 9 arise in highly stressful situations. The patient might describe feeling detached from his or her body or “like in a dream” (depersonalization, derealization). In the extreme, this can take the form of brief psychotic-like episodes. Even if absent from diagnostic criteria, splitting deserves to be mentioned, #selleck chemicals llc keyword# as it is widely used by BPD patients, especially teenagers, who tend not to tolerate ambiguity or grey zones. They-or their parents-often note that

they think and act in “all black or all white” way. Many patients (and their parents) also describe themselves as moody and sensitive children.33 A study demonstrated that the antecedents of adolescent personality disorder could be traced to 10 years earlier in the form

of childhood emotional and behavioral problems. Conduct problems were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical predictive of all three clusters, as depressive symptoms were associated with cluster B.34 The early temperament differences and early-onset mental state or behavioral problems are confirmed in a later review.22 Oppositional defiant disorder and attention Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical deficit-hyperactivity disorder are also pointed out as possible predictive factors of BPD in adolescents.35 Management of BPD in adolescents First, one should establish the aims of the intervention, to avoid wearing it down with unrealistic expectations. An important goal should be to improve the psychosocial functioning, and decrease the BPD symptoms, suicide and self-harm being primary targets. Discussing the management of BPD in adolescents implies addressing psychotherapies, pharmacology, hospitalization, and family implication. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Psychotherapy Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) DBT18,36,37 is an adaptation of cognitive behavioral therapy by Marsha Linehan, who uses the dialectical philosophy in her therapeutic interventions, by flexibly balancing and synthesizing acceptance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and change. It refers to the fact that opposite constructs can

both be true at the same time; “you are doing the best you can at the moment and you need to do better.” The core dialectic in DBT is accepting patients where they are in the moment and working to help them change. The therapy, CYTH4 as initially used with adults, includes weekly individual sessions, skills-training group sessions, phone consultation available at all times with the therapist, and team consultation meetings. The skills taught are mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotion regulation, and distress tolerance. There is an important hierarchy of the treatment targets, with life-threatening behaviors being addressed in priority. They are followed by therapy-interfering behaviors and quality-of-life interfering behaviors. This constitutes the first stage of treatment; subsequent stages are described but have not yet been the focus of studies. Miller and colleagues first adapted DBT for use with suicidal adolescents.

At the time, the authors concluded that trials of antidepressants in medical inpatients did not achieve the pattern of therapeutic responses routinely characterizing comparable interventions

in psychiatric patients with depression.34 However, there are now many studies demonstrating not only good tolerability of the newer antidepressants in the medically ill but also response and remission rates comparable to depressed patients without medical illness. This was confirmed in a Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical recent, meta-analysis including 18 studies, covering 838 patients with a range of physical diseases (cancer 2, diabetes 1, head injury 1, heart 1, HIV 5, lung 1, multiple sclerosis 1 , renal 1 , stroke 3, mixed 2).35 The results of the meta-analysis

were corroborated by newer randomized controlled trials in patients with coronary heart disease,36-38 diabetes,39 and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical stroke.40 The studies above were conducted in patients who all had a medical illness. Clinical trials of antidepressants usually exclude patients with medical comorbidity. However, some studies also addressed the issue of response and remission in depressed patients with and without medical comorbidity. The STAR*D study, which was designed to reflect “real-world” conditions, confirmed that two thirds of depressed patients had at least one concurrent general medical condition.12 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Generally, the remission rates in STAR*D (about 30%) were similar to rates found in uncomplicated, nonchronic symptomatic volunteers enrolled in placebo-controlled, 8-week, randomized controlled trials with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.7 Nevertheless, more general medical disorders were associated with lower Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical remission scores. Furthermore, in a study with 370 depressed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients, a comorbid medical condition was one of six risk factors for sustainednonremission of depression over 4 years.41 These findings are consistent with another study in 384 depressed outpatients that were enrolled in a 8-week open treatment with fluoxetine. Compared with patients who achieved remission with antidepressant

treatment, those who did not achieve remission had significantly greater medical illness. selleck inhibitor Importantly, the final Hamilton depression rating Scale score directly correlated from with the total burden of medical illness.42 However, among those patients for whom the first antidepressant treatment with fluoxetine failed to achieve remission and who were randomized cither to increased doses of fluoxetine or to augmentation with lithium or desipramine, medical illness was not associated with likelihood of remission or premature study discontinuation.43 There also exist studies in primary care. Among 601 depressed patients treated in primary care settings with an SSRI and followed over 9 months, physical impairment was one of four independent predictors of nonresponse.

01 to 200μM [42]. Significant cytotoxicity was found only by using folate-conjugated lipoZOL, especially in cell overexpressing the folate receptor. The discrepancy among the two studies could be ascribed to the different

formulations used as well as to the different cell lines. The in vivo antitumor activity of lipoZOL was demonstrated in two different model of tumors, namely, prostate cancer and multiple myeloma [40, 41]. In these experiments, mice treated with lipoZOL, compared to animal with free ZOL, showed a higher tumor weight BMS-345541 purchase inhibition and tumor growth delay, together with increased mice survival. As in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical case of non-stealth nanocarriers, also stealth liposomes allowed to obtain reduced number of TAM as well as inhibition of the neoangiogenesis [40, 41]. Moreover, no significant changes were found in serum creatinine, urea, and calcium in animals treated with lipoZOL, suggesting the absence Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of potential adverse effects [40]. In order to overcome technological limits of the lipoZOL, such as low encapsulation efficiency and stability issue of the liposomal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical formulation, our group recently developed a new nanovector

to deliver ZOL in extraskeletal tumor. The new system consists of self-assembling NPs encapsulating ZOL and designed to be prepared before use, thus avoiding storage issues [43, 102]. In particular, the formulation can be prepared by mixing two components, namely, an aqueous solution of ZOL, Ca2+/PO43− NPs, and cationic PEGylated liposomes. Ca2+/PO43− have already been used to deliver other negatively charged molecules, such as nucleic acids [103]. In the case of BPs, an encapsulation process driven by ionic interactions allowed to overcome the loading Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical issues observed with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical liposomes. Indeed, in the case of self-assembling NPs, a ZOL encapsulation efficiency 12-fold greater, compared with that obtained with ZOL-containing liposomes,

was achieved. The self-assembling NPs increased the growth inhibition of ZOL on different cancer cell lines, compared to free ZOL. The highest cell growth inhibition was observed on breast cancer cells. The anticancer activity of this formulation was also demonstrated in vivo in an animal model of prostate cancer. ZOL encapsulated into self-assembling NPs elicited a marked antitumor activity, while free ZOL did not show a significant reduction because of tumor growth [43]. The in vivo anticancer activities of two different ZOL-containing nanocarriers, namely, lipoZOL and self-assembling NPs, were compared [41]. In this study, self-assembling NPs encapsulating ZOL induced the complete remission of tumour xenografts and an increase of survival time higher than that observed with lipoZOL. This effect was paralleled by a significant increase of both necrotic and apoptotic indexes.

Main Points Sipuleucel-T appears promising as a vaccine that specifically targets prostate cancer (PCa) with minimal toxicities. The IMmunotherapy

for Prostate AdenoCarcinoma Treatment (IMPACT) double-blind randomized phase III study of 512 men with asymptomatic chemonaïve metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) reported that the median survival was 25.8 months with sipuleucel-T compared with 21.7 months with placebo, and the 3-year survival also improved significantly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (31.7% vs 23.0%; P = .032). The treatment effect remained consistent after adjustment for docetaxel use following investigational therapy. Formal approval by mid-2010 is expected, which would make this the first vaccine therapy US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)- approved for the treatment of cancer, after a plethora of previous phase III failures of cancer vaccines in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical other tumor types. The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-secreting vaccine GVAX (Cell Genesys, South San Francisco, CA) was a mixture of the PCa cell lines, PC-3 and LNCaP, transduced

with a replication-defective Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical retrovirus containing cDNA for GM-CSF and then irradiated. Disappointingly, both the VITAL-1 trial that evaluated GVAX or docetaxel/prednisone for asymptomatic metastatic CRPC patients, and the VITAL-2 trial that evaluated GVAX plus docetaxel or docetaxel/prednisone in symptomatic metastatic CRPC patients, did not demonstrate improved outcomes

with GVAX, leading to early termination of both Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical trials. Poxviruses represent a family of related double-stranded DNA viruses distinguished by their host specificity. A poxvirus (Prostvac)-expressing prostate-specific antigen and a triad of costimulatory molecules (TRICOM) have been studied in a double-blind placebo-controlled randomized phase II trial of 122 patients with chemonaïve Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical minimally symptomatic metastatic CRPC. This trial demonstrated that Prostvac extended median survival (25.1 vs 16.6 mo; P = .0061) as well as 3-year survival (30% vs 17%). An emerging theme in phase III studies of vaccines (eg, sipuleucel-T and Prostvac) in medroxyprogesterone advanced PCa is one of prolonged survival, without a demonstrable signal of tumor shrinkage or delay in short-term disease progression. The development of vaccine approaches, either alone or in combination with other modalities, that may lead to objective measurable disease responses or delay in short-term disease progression would be a significant advance in the field and may lead to a more rapid and feasible pathway for their clinical development. Optimal patient selection is critical for selleck chemical trials evaluating vaccines and other immunotherapeutic agents for PCa. Preclinical data from animal models should inform the decision to select patients for clinical trials. Footnotes Relevant conflicts of interest: Dr.

The authors conclude that light therapy with continued SSRI treatment may be a useful strategy to achieve beneficial long-term effects in patients with SAD. A study by Lingjacrdc et al74 testing the hypothesis that Ginkgo biloba extract may prevent the symptoms of winter depression in patients with SAD yielded negative results. In a recent study metergoline, a nonspecific serotonin antagonist, did not demonstrate a sustained significant effect on mood compared with placebo.75 Table V.

Placebo-controlled studies of pharmacotherapy of seasonal affective disorder (SAD),58,67-75 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical General management issues Since there is little evidence comparing light therapy with antidepressant medication, the choice between these alternatives relies on individual assessment of risks and find protocol benefits.23 Generally, light therapy is very well accepted by patients. Availability and costs Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of a light therapy device are sometimes limiting factors, as is the time patients need to commit for daily light therapy. However, BLT should be considered first-line

treatment for moderately depressed patients and patients with prominent atypical depressive symptoms. Generally, light therapy alone Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or in combination with antidepressants should be given for the duration of the dark time of year, ie, until April or May in the northern hemisphere. A trial of light therapy should last at least 2 to 4 weeks. A trial of antidepressants should last 4 to 6 weeks. Light therapy and medication trials should be applied sequentially, as combining them from the beginning on will lead to a loss of information Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical about which treatment is beneficial, or which treatment is causing side effects. A combination of both treatments should be considered if there is insufficient response to either pharmacological

or light treatment. If a depressive episode is resis] tant to the combination of BLT and an antidepressant, options are lengthening light treatment time, raising the t dose Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the antidepressant, or switching to a drug of a dif5 ferent class. Although there are no specific data available for SAD, treatment should follow algorithms for treatment-resistant depression if a sufficient response still canl not be achieved. also Pharmacological augmentation strategies, electroconvulsive therapy, or sleep deprivation procedures80 should then be considered.
The Rarth ‘s rotation on its axis, the orbit of the Rarth around the Sun, and the orbit of the Moon around the Rarth induce rhythmic geophysical phenomena. Organisms are thus affected by daily and seasonal variations of many physical factors of their environment. The ability to adapt to this changing environment is an essential survival mechanism. As a result, life has evolved to adapt to periodically changing environmental demands, and to anticipate them according to their predictability.

Depression has devastating consequences that require it to be carefully assessed and managed clinically, including

the possibility that the depression worsens the severity of the MS. Finally, it is important to note that current treatments for MS depression, while nonspecific, can be dramatically effective and lead to complete resolution of the Selleck Enzastaurin Depressive syndrome. Further work in the area of MS depression should lead us to a new understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of mood disorders, with the promise of producing a Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical host of novel treatments in the near future, perhaps some that are already being employed in the management of inflammatory conditions. Selected abbreviations and acronyms ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone BDNF brain-derived neurotrophic factor CRH corticotropin-releasing hormone EAE experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis HPA hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal IFN interferon IL interleukin MDD Major Depressive Disorder MRI magnetic resonance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical imaging MS multiple sclerosis TNF tumor necrosis factor Contributor

Information Michele L. Pucak, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. Katherine A. L. Carroll, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences; Department of Neurology. Douglas A. Kerr, Department of Neurology; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Adam L. Kaplin, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.
Quallty Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of life is defined by the World Health Organization1 as “Individuals’ perceptions of their position in life in the context of the culture

and value systems in which they live, and in relation to their goals, expectations, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical standards, and concerns.” In the last two decades, there has been increasing interest in quality of life in schizophrenic patients, since schizophrenia is a severe, disabling, lifelong disorder, associated with severe social and occupational dysfunction. Furthermore, the development of atypical antipsychotics with broader efficacy and lower incidence of extrapyramidal side effects than typical neuroleptics has promoted greater interest from Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase the patient’s perspective.2 Measurement of quality of life in schizophrenic patients Quality of life measurement is based on the principle of applying medical care and interventions, taking into account patients’ right of autonomy, which necessarily includes their opinion both during diagnostic evaluation and while formulating their care plan.3 However, there are still doubts as to whether patients with schizophrenia are capable of self-assessment of their quality of life, because of their cognitive deficits and lack of insight into their illness.

These neurobiological measures appear to relate closely to pathophysiological, neuropathological, and clinical data, such as hyperphosphorylation of tau, abeta metabolism, lipid peroxidation, pattern and rate of atrophy, loss of neuronal integrity, functional and cognitive decline, as well as risk of future decline. On the neurochemical level, CSF concentration of Aβ42, tau, and Ptau can distinguish subjects with MCI who are likely to progress to AD. They also show Mdm2 high throughput screening preclinical alterations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that predict later development of

early AD symptoms. Studies on plasma Aβ are not entirely consistent, but recent findings suggest that decreased plasma Aβ42 relative to Aβ40 may increase the risk of AD. Increased production of Aβ in aging is suggested by elevation of BACE-1 protein and enzyme activity in the brain and CSF of subjects with MCI. CSF tau and P-tau are increased in MCI as well, and show predictive value, Other biomarkers may indicate components of a Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cascade initiated by Aβ, such as oxidative stress

or inflammation. Other interesting Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical novel marker candidates derived from blood are being currently proposed (phase I). These merit further study in MCI and earlier stages. Manual hippocampal volumetry is currently the bestestablished biomarker for AD in the field of structural imaging, but due to the laborious nature of the procedure it will only be used in clinical studies for risk stratification of study populations and as an end point Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for treatment effects in the foreseeable future. Automated data-driven and rater- independent methods are currently being investigated to detect regional changes, namely VBM, DBM, and the measurement of cortical thickness. In the medium term, particularly in combination with multivariate statistical analysis methods, analysis algorithms are likely to be identified that are at least as effective Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as hippocampal volumetry in the early detection of AD in MCI subjects

and will therefore be used in pharmacological studies. However, if secondary preventive treatment approaches are approved in the coming years, the use of these kinds of automated methods for the early detection of AD will be of socioeconomic enough importance in routine diagnostic practice as well. Besides structural neuroimaging, pilot studies using other neuroimaging approaches such as PET (FDG and PIB), DTI and MRS yielded promising results and should be prospectively applied to larger samples. Apart from hippocampal volumetry, whole-brain volumetry is currently being investigated as a secondary end point in several clinical studies, and other studies are beginning on whole brain volumetry; however, the validity of this marker is limited. PET has been used as an end point in single-center studies.

This technique causes a greater amount of tissue necrosis than the other techniques, which may lead to the infectious complications observed in their study. In addition, there is a theoretical potential for thermal insult to major biliary structures. Radiofrequency ablation is generally reserved for ablating liver tumors that are unresectable. However, it is

not effective in tumors next to portal vessels due to the heat sink cause by blood flow. The liver parenchyma in these situations will not be high enough to cause the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical coagulation necrosis of the tumor. Figure 7 Radiofrequency-assisted liver resection. The probe (left) is inserted into the parenchyma along the chosen line of transection in serially overlapping areas. The precoagulated tissue can then be divided with a scalpel (right). (Courtesy of AngioDynamics). … Water-jet Dissection This technique Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical find more employs a high-pressure water jet to break apart the liver tissue and selectively isolate small vascular and biliary structures, potentially decreasing blood loss. These vessels and ducts must then be ligated and divided individually according to preference. It is this necessary Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical second step that may put this technique at a time disadvantage to others which offer simultaneous transection and hemostasis. Nonetheless,

the precise delineation of the transection plane (Figure 8) produced by the water-jet dissector (ERBEJET 2, ERBE USA Inc, Marietta, GA, USA) can be advantageous for exposing the major vessels more effectively, especially in the context of closely adjacent tumors. Additionally, this technique spares the surrounding tissue from any thermal damage. Rau and colleagues presented a series of 350

liver resection performed exclusively Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with the water-jet dissector, in which they were able to reduce their blood loss, transfusion requirements, use of Pringle maneuver, and resection time in comparison to CUSA or blunt dissection (38). The data from randomized trials, however, has not shown a similar benefit (26,28,39). Figure 8 Close-up image of the water-jet dissector. (Courtesy of ERBE USA). Vascular Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical stapler technique Vascular staplers have become an accepted method of liver transection. STK38 Initially used primarily for division of major vessels, their use has been expanded to divide hepatic parenchyma. Staplers have the potential to be serially applied and fired in quick and efficient fashion, thus increasing their popularity. A common strategy is to use a large clamp to fracture the liver parenchyma along the line of transection, followed by serial firings of an Endo-surgical stapler with a vascular load (Ethicon Endo-Surgery, Cincinnati, OH, USA or Covidien, Mansfield, MA, USA) (Figure 9) (40,41). Reddy and colleagues published a retrospective series of greater than 200 patients over 10 years who underwent partial hepatectomy with either the crush-clamp alone or vascular stapler techniques.

13 ± 0.47, 13.71 ± 0.53, and 9.37 ± 0.36 for OCM-CS:CaCl2 weight ratio

6:1, 5:1, and 4:1, respectively, (Table 6). OCM-CSNPs were formed due to ionic interactions between OCM-CS, CaCl2, and DRZ. As the concentration of OCM-CS Tideglusib purchase increased from 4:1 to 6:1, entrapment efficiency also increased owing to availability of larger number of negatively charged COO− group that interacted with positively charged NH3+ of DRZ. The amount of CaCl2 required for ionic gelation of OCM-CS containing DRZ was less than that required for plain OCM-CS solution. This indicates that the binding affinity of CaCl2 towards OCM-CS in presence of DRZ was reduced. For CSNPs, entrapment efficiency was found to be 20.08 ± 0.87, 16.29 ± 0.61, and 10.51 ± 0.57, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical respectively, for 6:1, 5:1, and 4:1 for CS:TPP weight ratio (Table 7). In this case, there was no ionic interaction (only weak electrostatic interaction) between CS and DRZ (both positively charged at pH 5.5)

but negatively charged polyanionic TPP could interact with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cationic CS and preferentially with protonated DRZ. Therefore, with increased concentration of TPP in CS:TPP weight ratio from 6:1 to 4:1, the amount of DRZ available for physical entrapment with CS decreased resulting in decreased entrapment. Similar results were obtained by Singh et al. for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical CSNPs of brimonidine tartrate which is also protonated at the same pH [36]. Therefore, CS:TPP weight ratio 6:1, with minimum amount of TPP resulted in the highest entrapment [20]. 3.11. Effect of Drug Loading on Particle Size, Zeta Potential, and Entrapment Efficiency The OCM-CS:CaCl2 and CS:TPP weight ratios were loaded with a different polymer: DRZ and the effect on particle size, PI, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency was studied (Table 8). For OCM-CSNPs, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical particle size increased with increased DRZ loading. The mean particle size varied from 181.1 ± 2.721 to 239.6 ± 3.811nm with PI ranging from 0.209 ± 0.081 to 0.316 ± 0.029. The negative zeta

potential values changed from −31.24 ± 0.75 to −24.03 ± 0.68 as the concentration of DRZ increased. These results demonstrated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that the incorporation of the DRZ into OCM-CSNPs led to a drug proportion-dependent increase of their size compared with blank NPs (Figure 5). Increased drug proportion caused an increased reduction of OCM-CS:CaCl2 interaction, leading to increase NPs size [37], whereas no significant change in the particle size of CSNPs was observed as the drug loading Liothyronine Sodium was increased. The mean particle size was found to be in the range of 250.3 ± 2.627nm with PI 0.313 ± 0.009 (Figure 6). Zeta potential values showed moderate to good stability (+28.61 ± 0.924 to +33.89 ± 0.547). These narrow particle size distributions with low PI and moderate zeta potential values attributed to stability of OCM-CS and CS NPs [38]. Figure 5 Effect of drug loading on OCM-CS:CaCl2 weight ratio of 6:1. Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation, n = 3.