Experiments to test the model predictions were performed following protocols that have been described previously (Mysore et al., 2010 and Mysore et al., 2011), and key aspects are listed in the Supplemental Experimental Procedures. Briefly, epoxy-coated tungsten microelectrodes (FHC, 250 μm, 1–5 MW at 1 kHz) were used to record single units and multiunits extracellularly in seven barn owls that typically were tranquilized with a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen.

Multiunit spike waveforms were sorted offline into putative single units. All recordings were made in layers 11–13 of the optic tectum (OTid). Visual BIBW2992 concentration looming stimuli were presented on a tangent screen in front of the owl. This work was supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health (9R01 EY019179-30, to E.I.K.). We thank Daniel Kimmel, Valerio Mante, and Alireza

Soltani for critically reading the manuscript and for discussions. S.P.M. and E.I.K. designed the research and wrote the manuscript. S.P.M. performed the simulations, experiments, and analyses. “
“Von Economo neurons (VENs) enjoy an (often unspoken) reputation as a potential neural correlate of consciousness and its expression within complex social behaviors. Comparative neuroanatomy underlies these ambitious claims: VENs were found initially only in humans and hominid primates (i.e., gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan) and were thought to be absent in gibbons, monkeys, prosimians and click here other species (Nimchinsky et al., 1999 and Allman et al., 2011). Highest VEN density is found in the human brain and, across the great apes, VEN densities appear distributed in a manner seemingly proportionate with human-like 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl social cognitive abilities. In hominids, the localization of VENs within anterior cingulate and anterior insular cortices also suggests that VENs may underpin the contribution of these regions to aspects of human conscious awareness, including higher-order thought and emotional

feeling states. VENs are large projection neurons, a feature consistent with a role in “workspace” functional architectures proposed to underlie conscious access generally (Dehaene and Changeux, 2011). However, detailed characterization of VENs in terms of neurophysiology (what information is processed) and connectivity (where this information goes) has so far been unavailable. The observation of VENs in the macaque brain (Evrard et al., 2012) therefore opens an accessible route for much-needed detailed functional characterization of these distinctive projection neurons. At the same time, the discovery also prompts a revision of assumptions regarding the phylogenetic emergence of VENs and their association with large brain size. Although previously sought in macaque brains (e.g., Nimchinsky et al.