29 It is unclear whether the duration of PSC correlates with the risk of developing CC; in fact, most cases present relatively soon after PSC diagnosis. Cohort studies suggest that CC develops within the first 1-2 years of PSC diagnosis. A cohort study by Boberg et al. found that 48 of 394 (12.2%) patients with PSC developed CC, with 24 of them being diagnosed within 1 year of the diagnosis of PSC.34 In a Swedish cohort study, 14 of 125 (11.2%) patients with PSC developed CC. Eleven of the 14 (∼78%) were diagnosed with CC within 2 years of the diagnosis

of PSC.35 Possible Roxadustat molecular weight explanations for these observations include that early CC may be partly responsible for the patient with PSC seeking medical attention. Given the difficulty of diagnosing early CC in PSC, the initial presentation may result in a diagnosis of the PSC, but the CC is not diagnosed until later. Smoking

and alcohol consumption have also been examined as risk factors for CC in patients with PSC. A case-control study by Chalasani et al. and a cohort study by Burak et al. did not find smoking to be a significant risk factor, whereas a case-control study by Berquist et al. found a significant association (10 versus 0 patients; P < 0.0004).33, 36, 37 Chalasani et al. also looked at alcohol consumption and reported a significant association between self-reported present or past alcohol consumption and increased risk of CC in patients 上海皓元 with PSC (OR = 2.95; 95% CI Obeticholic Acid = 1.04-8.3).37 There are no definitive data to suggest that smoking and/or alcohol consumption confer an increased risk of CC in

PSC patients. Hepatolithiasis is the presence of calculi or concretions located proximal to the confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts. Hepatolithiasis is found mainly in Southeast Asia (e.g., up to 20% in Taiwan) and is rare in the West (1%-2%). It has been postulated that prolonged irritation and inflammation of the biliary epithelium by the calculi, bile stasis, and bacterial infections predispose to malignancy.38, 39 In addition, infestation with parasites, such as C. sinensis and Ascaris lumbricoides, has been shown in up to 30% of patients with hepatolithiasis.40 Hepatolithiasis is an established risk factor for ICC in Asian countries, with 2-10% of patients with hepatolithiasis developing ICC.4, 38, 39 The Korean, hospital-based, case-control study by Lee et al. found a strong association between hepatolithiasis and ICC, with an OR of 50.0 (95% CI = 21.2-117.3).27 A Chinese, hospital-based, case-control study by Zhou et al. also showed a significant association, with the OR at 5.8 (95% CI = 1.97-16.9).41 There are less data on the relationship between hepatolithiasis and ICC in Western countries, but an Italian, hospital-based, case-control study also showed a significant association between hepatolithiasis and ICC, with an OR of 6.7 (95% CI = 1.3-33.4).