The role of antibiotics in this setting is prevention and treatment of hematogenous spread of infection and reduction of late complications[89]. Treatment should be initiated as soon as a diagnosis is suspected, and within an hour in the case of severe sepsis[22]. Antibiotic choice should depend on the most likely source of infection, immune status of the patient, and the likelihood of opportunistic or resistant organisms. In general, the gastrointestinal tract is sterile

in the stomach and duodenum, with enteric gram negatives in the proximal small bowel, and anaerobes populating the distal ileum and colon[7]. Table 1 lists the expected organisms according to source of contamination. In cases where the source

is known, antimicrobial selection can target site-specific click here organisms. When the source is not known, choice of antimicrobial regimen and duration of treatment should be guided by patient risk. Risk, in this context, is intended to describe risk for failure of treatment, and risk assessment allows for proper selection of narrow versus broad-spectrum antibiotics. High versus low risk is determined primarily by patient physiology and underlying medical conditions learn more (Table 2). Health care-associated infections, APACHE II score > 15, advanced age, organ dysfunction, poor nutritional status, immunosuppression and presence of malignancy are all associated with a high risk of treatment failure[5, 12]. Table 2 Risk factors for poor outcomes Factors associated with high risk for poor outcomes

Pre-existing factors Disease specific Poor nutritional status APACHE II score ≥ 15 Presence of malignancy Delay in initial intervention > 24 hours Organ dysfunction Inadequate source control Immunosuppression Prolonged pre-operative hospital stay   Prolonged pre-operative antibiotics Adapted from Weigelt JA, Solomkin, Wacha [4, Cyclin-dependent kinase 3 12, 40, 109]. Without identifiable risk factors, an IAI is considered low risk and can be treated with narrow-spectrum antibiotics directed toward anaerobic and gram-negative organisms[7]. In low risk infections, cultures are generally considered unnecessary. Even if cultures are obtained and show resistant organisms, there is no need to alter antimicrobial therapy according to culture results if there is an adequate clinical response[5]. Table 3 lists antibiotic regimens deemed appropriate for low risk patients by the Surgical Infection Society (SIS). Table 3 Risk stratified antibiotic recommendations   Low Risk High Risk Single Agent Cefoxitin Imipenem-cilastatin   Ertapenem Meropenem   Moxifloxacin Doripenem   LCZ696 mouse Ticarcillin Pipercillin-tazobactam   Tigecycline   Combination Cefazolin Cefepime   Cefuroxime Ceftazidime   Ceftriaxone Ciprofloxacin   Cefotaxime Levofloxacin   Ciprofloxacin +Metronidazole   Levofloxacin     +Metronidazole   Adapted from Solomkin[4, 5] (Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines).